Should Race Be Used as a Form of Identity?

Should Race Be Used as a Form of Identity? Identity is based on being the same as some people and different  from others. The difference is usually equally weighted discuss with  reference to the category of race. Identity is one of the most heavily debated factors of modern social life. This is represented in the corpus of sociological research, by the importance placed upon its influence in the different ways in which individuals and societies conceptualise themselves and others. Identity, first and foremost, is based upon the notion of being the same as some people (to identify with some people), and to be different from others. This can and often is interpreted as identity having both a positive and a negative aspect, positive in identifying with a social group, and negative in being different (or opposing) another. This may not necessarily be the case however. In this paper I will investigate the use of race as an identity, as this has traditionally presented us with both the positive and negative model of identity, and in more recent times, a more positive model in both identity and difference. Identity, in its most basic sense, is formed from being ‘other’ than another particular person or group. This basic difference comes in many forms, from gender, to class, nationality, sexual orientation and race or ethnicity. Whilst these are the some of the more major identity groups, there are countless other ways in which people identify with each other, from a lifestyle guided by a certain musical taste to a radical political identification. Identity therefore remains a very important way in which people understand themselves and the world. Any one person will belong to a number of different identity groups however. A person might, for example, be a British national with an Asian ethnicity, and belong to a particular political group and economic class. Whether or not one particular facet of a person’s identity is more important than the others, is a matter that is fiercely debated. For some theorists such as Miller (1997:11), ‘nations are ethical communities. They are contour lines in the ethical landscape. The duties we owe to our fellow-nationals are different from, and more extensive than, the duties we owe to human beings as such’. Miller and others argue that nationality is the most important way in which people identify themselves, and as such it renders their responsibilities to co-nationals much greater than to others. Whilst Perry (2001:103-108) argues that gender is the most important identity group, and that feminism is in danger of being watered-down and destroyed by theories that place too much emphasis on the multi-faceted nature of an individual’s identity. For, she argues (2001:107), ‘Women of all ethnicities, sexual preferences, and even classes, will be disadvantaged by proposed changes in welfare regulation, means-tested custody, and the rolling back of abortion rights and affirmative action guidelines’. Marxi st theorists argue however that class is the most important factor in social identity, for the economic class you belong to will determine whether or not you have political control over you and your society’s future. Hence Marx’s (2001:8) famous opening line to his Communist Manifesto, ‘The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles’. For the purposes of this paper however, I am going to focus on the influence that race plays in identity formation, and its relationship with the other facets of identity. Race has long been debated in sociological circles, but precisely what race is or even whether it exists to any significant level has been placed in doubt by a number of theorists. Todorov (1999:64-70) argues that for a theory of races (or racialism) to exist, it needs to have five different presuppositions. Firstly the racialist must suppose that there are different races of people at all. Scientifically such a position is untenable, but, as Todorov argues, whether or not the man in the street thinks this way does not depend upon science. Secondly the racialist must suppose that people are not only racially separated by appearances, but that there are lines of division amongst cultures too, which are intimately linked with racial appearances. The third supposition is that the behaviour of an individual is profound ly affected by their race. Fourthly there is a hierarchy of values between differing races, and lastly that some political order should be in place to reflect all the previously mentioned factors. For Todorov racialist doctrine has not gone away but has merely changed its form, from discourses based on race to those of culturalism and nationalism. For Todorov then there are many different presuppositions that have to be in place before race itself as a significant identity can be considered. But, as he himself notes, there is an ideological form of racialism which is pure and simply racist and does not rely upon theoretical grounding or offer any form of justification. This is racist behaviour and attitude is the most common one in society, and this behaviour can only create and galvanise race or ethnic identity. This can take occur in both a positive and negative fashion, in that one group might define itself in a positive nature when under pressure from another, or one group might violently negate another and try to eradicate it. In such circumstances, the significance that race or ethnicity plays in identity is accentuated and becomes more important than other factors. Indeed, according to Assad (1993), minorities in modern states are faced with two stark choices; they can submit to complete assimilation or be despised as d ifferent. In such circumstances, the identity under threat comes to the fore of the life of the person in question. To submit to the majority is to lose your identity, but to keep it is to face hostility and conflict. Of course, the situation that Assad presents us with is somewhat extreme. But whereas in most circumstances the differences among people might be treated with equal weight, within the boundaries of a nation state trying to forge a unifying identity, racial and ethnic identity does become more important. Britain, for example, present us with a multicultural society that incorporates a whole range of people from different ethnic, religious and economic backgrounds. But this does not mean that racial discrimination and intimidation does not occur. As Solomos (2003) argues, the long history of racial discrimination in Britain has led to political activists in all the main political parties, whose aim and purpose is to fight for the rights of ethnic minorities. Such developments galvanise people around their ethnicity and form new identities with which people differentiate themselves against others. The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in the 1980s were interested in precisely this: A major concern of the group was the need to analyse the complex processes by which race is constructed as a social and political relation. They emphasised that the concept of race is not simply confined to a process of regulation operated by the state but that the meaning of race as a social construction is contested and fought over. In this sense they viewed race as an open political construction where the meaning of terms such as black are struggled over. Collective identities spoken through race, community and locality are, for all their spontaneity, powerful means to coordinate action and create solidarity (Solomos 2003:28). Race can therefore be theorised not as a natural category or regulation of the state, but as a political construction where identity can be formed in order to fight for social justice. This political use of race argues that racial divisions in society are a cause of major differences in quality of life, and therefore racial identity is of much more importance than other factors. Such division can however cause greater resentment amongst different social groups and put more emphasis on difference than on similarity. While positive discrimination by the dominant social group, in an attempt to redress the power balance between different segments of society, can often enflame racial tension. As Solomos (2003:192) argues, anti-racists are often depicted as doing more harm to race relations than extreme rightwing fanatics. This is because they highlight racial differences and polarise people between different racial identities. It could be argued however that anti-racists do not create rac ial tension, but merely highlight tension that is already there. In any case, the importance that race plays in everyday social life is clearly evident. Anwar (1998:99-100), for example, claims that racial discrimination against Asian people has been on the rise in recent years in Britain, and that in 1994 alone there were 170,000 instances of racially motivated crimes and threats, whilst an estimated 74 people have been killed by racist attacks between 1970 and 1989. Racial identity can motivate people not only to dislike and slander each other, but even to reach the extremes of violence and murder. With this in mind race is quite obviously, although without any ultimate justification, the deciding factor in a person’s identity in many social situations, overriding other factors such as gender, political affiliations or, very often, religion. Scott (2002) renders this assumption problematic however by researching the roots of racism from a Marxist perspective. Whilst race and racism clearly do have an important impact in social identity, this is for Scott a modern phenomenon with historically traceable roots. Scott argues that modern racism is intimately related with that of capitalism, and that whilst racism has always figured in societies in different forms, it is only with capitalism that it becomes a constant factor. Early slavery in the New World, for example, was largely made up from white slaves from England before the large influx from the West Indies and Africa. The English ruling classes had no qualms about exploiting the white working classes, but in the end the demand for labour at home rendered the practice of shipping white slaves over to the Americas as inefficient. Using Blackburn’s analysis of racism and capitalism, Scott (2002:167) argues that racism is linked to capitalist growth, national identi ty and the individualising of the populace. Its development was associated with several of those processes which have been held to define modernity: the growth of instrumental rationality, the rise of national sentiment and the nation-state, racialized perceptions of identity, the spread of market relations and wage labor, the development of administrative bureaucracies and modern tax systems, the growing sophistication of commerce and communication, the birth of consumer societies, the publication of newspapers and the beginnings of press advertising, â€Å"action at a distance† and an individualist sensibility (Blackburn in Scott (2002:167). A further Marxist analysis might consider the influence that alienated labour has on divisive notions of race (see Manson 2000:20). For Marx, man becomes alienated from his labour in a capitalist society, because he no longer has any control over the products of his labour. He therefore becomes reduced to an atomistic cog in a productive machine, alienated from his work and society. Pseudo-identities can then be formed and people coerced into assuming them to fill in the lack of meaning left by his lack of control over his social production. Furthermore, the crux of Marxist theory rests upon the notion that the ‘class which has the means of material production at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means of mental production, so that, generally speaking, the ideas of those who lack the means of mental production are subject to it’(Marx and Engels 1970:64). This means that it is the ruling economic class, which are the people who control the means of produ ction, that disseminate ideas and values throughout the rest of society. Notions of race are therefore inherently linked with the prevailing ideas of capitalist production and the values and ideas that this produces. Whilst the Marxist analysis does not refute the existence of racism, nor can it deny its powerful and destructive effects, it does suggest that the existence of racial discourse is the product of an underlying one, that of the capitalist economy. Whether this is correct or not, it does at least render problematic the notion that race is a distinct and unique form of identity. This also calls into question whether or not race really is more important than other forms of identity, or whether its existence is part of an underlying form of identity production.

Boundary Issues

The term boundary can be understood to mean something that indicates a boarder or a limit. This is in other words a boarder or limit so indicated. This can as well be classified into two major classes of boundaries as can be seen here:- Divergent boundaries-using the geographical aspect of explanation, it can be described as occurrence at the point where two plates move away from each other. This creates more crust at the point of separation. Convergent boundaries-this is when the plates are moving into one another neither sub ducting into the other but pushing up the crust.Crust slip boundary-this can be termed another division where plates are colliding into one another at an angle. Tension builds and released inform of an earthquake. All human love and dialog is a striving to reconcile our longing for the gone bliss of togetherness with our equally intense desire for separateness (cited Jane Adams, PhD). Human minds encompass these conflicting issues through creation and uncreatio n of boundaries. These are mental issues and structures that increase in their nature of complexity and number. This does happen when we meet other people and develop our own capacities.We are able to identify our thoughts and feelings together with our emotions from those of others. This comes to happen simply because they tend to format all our memories and thinking, experiences, emotions and sensations in our identity. They do not occupy our geographical but rather mental phenomenon in our minds. This creates a real boarder in our minds. Boundaries define how self identifies itself. They do not only determine where you begin but also where you end. This goes to the space between us too. Boundaries are responsible for how we deal with the dilemma of being human.Self-in-dilemma defines how we identify and relate with others. This too stretches to identifying ourselves by maintaining our identity by our autonomy and independence. One thing that is so clear is that relationship diffe rences are as a result of boundaries. This has been seen frequently being encountered between parents and children, spouses, partners, friends and professional colleagues. Intimacy, loneliness, conflict, anxiety, stress and challenges at every stage of life are dealt with by the creation of boundaries. The development of our personalities is central to this as well as how our identity s identified.This is defined to how we think and feel about ourselves and how others perceive us. This is a special lens through which we perceive ourselves, how we are and why we are those kinds of people that we are able to see in ourselves. Limits of inner boundaries Many at times we might argue but the truth of the matter is that generic inheritance is responsible for the shaping of our inner boundaries (this is meant to identify with individual neuro chemistry, how sensitive the amygdala is and the connection of various parts of the brains among other things).Habits of the mind, neuro chemistry an d temperament dictate the extend to which our inner boundaries are connected or separate our thoughts and feelings, distinction of our mental experiences, from those of others, how they absorb or deflect the influence of their thought, moods and voices on our own and distinction among the identity, ego and superego. This gives the conscious, unconscious and preconscious contents of our minds and their property. Connection between inner boundaries and addiction Boundaries hail from recovery movement. Boundaries dysfunction and confusion coupled withdistortion are symptomatic of drug problems, alcohol, food, sex spending and other substances or activities that are considered to be addictive in nature. Addiction and recovery literature touches on boundaries and it does generally give a short attention to inner boundaries and rather focuses on interpersonal ones. Boundaries go not only to the extend of affecting the relationship with others but also emotional balance , personalities, co gnitive ability, career choice, art preference, music and architecture, political views and opinion not forgetting attitude. It also stretches to attitudes towards money and time.As an influence of personality, it is so surprising how boundaries are overlooked yet they are so an important aspect of our lives. This is so for psychiatrists who are concerned with individual rather than individual in relationship to. When we are discussing issues to do with boundaries, we should talk of boundaries and hoe they affect us directly and their influence on the people living around us. The world being a global village, and human beings being the only existent social beings in nature, the comfort of our neighbors should be of great interest to us.When we live as a community, we should put in mind the immediate aspect of how our neighbors are and not just the single life existing between us. Mental illness is the hallmark of distorted inner boundaries and this explains why they end up behaving like so, interpersonal psychiatrists differently think about boundaries(inner ones). They look at how they shape our social upbringing and as well how they organize or disorganize the contents of our minds . When inner boundaries are termed porous or weak , then the self is empty and famished . Forever one will be in search of someone to fill or repair it.In case we make it more rigid and solid ,it is always hard to let other people understand us,touch us or even move us, when we distort them to the worst ,so is the person himself. This means no psychological growth can occur within us social workers in practice encounter situations that end up bringing boundary problems or potential boundary problems. In a situation where workers face workers encounter conflict of interest , boundary problems arise. This is dual or several relationship boundary issues. Multiple relationships are as result of professional engaging in more than one relationship.Relationships have been established to be common primarily among social workers and their current workers and their colleagues. Discussions mainly focuses on dual relationship especially exploitive ones. As seen with social workers who get sexually involved with clients , this is a clear explanation of social dual dual boundary problem, This has been seen over a range of acts inclusive of providing home telephone number for official events, accepting goods and services from people one is not supposed to, ranging as far fetched issues as well.Jayarante et all , 1997 noted â€Å" and now swinging in a narrower arc the arm of controversy and can be done away with and dual relationships like sexual attachment with clients should be avoided greatly. It would be good that professionals continue to work with integrity and dignity and to bring out the difference concerning sexual relationships that we should be able to avoid as much as possible. (pg 190) One has a broader examination lense and a fine toned understanding of the levels which we should be able to get ourselves involved.Sexual relationship prohibitions between doctors and students have been described not to be a thing of the late twentieth century. The physician-patient relationship demands the doctor be very disciplined to ensure that the patient . Doctors should do everything to avoid relationship that will impair their professional judgment or the possibility of creating a dirty game that erodes the trust and confidence placed in them by their patients The question of whether the situations of sexual misconduct between doctors and patients is as bad as itappears to be remains and snag between peoples mind. Some have argued that the situation is being overstated and people have kept citing the same incident to justify their overstatements. Which has always said that the the case is understatement. For the purpose of better understanding of this problem, a review of the available cases and their sources has to be done. Data has shown that th e the studies were conducted through selection of cases based on anonymity through the mail.The first case was the collection of data by asking the patients and practitioners being asked to tell how many of the practitioners being asked to tell how many of their friend and have been involved in a similar act with their partners. The second case did not account for the patients who had been involved in the issue with several practitioners and reported over the last 25 years. Boundary issues come in more than one sharpened size and addresses most fundamental aspects of the therapeutic practice, Regarding boundary issues, the therapist is responsible for two kinds of standards.†Minimal standards being the first one is the most mandatory and whenever violated it leads to punishment. † â€Å" Aspirational standards† comes next even though it is not as mandatory as such and do not participate in the punishment of the individuals. They are sources which we should underst and and work towards achieving in order to have the best out of our professions. A professional therapist will get engaged in both minimal and aspirational standards to ensure that he achieves the best and avoidance of the blunders in life.Among the issues that can be understood as boundary issues ranges from being a clients friend being differentiated from being their therapist, formation in therapy of sexually intimate relations, offering the client non licensed services from the reason when you first met and failure to keep your private life away from the client. Through assessing the following issues one is able to understand himself better and work towards getting the best deal out of his working relationship with his clients.This also does promote the ethical way of living. The client feels more of a friend with you than a client at the end of the therapy session. One might also feel sexually aroused in the response to a client. It may also come in a sense when one would like to be lovers with a client at the end of the therapy session. Do you ever have sexual contact with the client? You often go into careful selection of your clothes with a specific client in mind. It is also seen in times when a particular clients time always runs overtime.Engaging in friendly talks with the client thus revealing so much of yourself towards a particular client. Healthy boundaries have also been described to exist whatsoever. This has been described through willingness to say no in order to clearly notify others that they are stepping on your toes. Controversially, you are also willing to say yes. One too has the ability to make requests and seek alternatives when other people say no to him. It also comes with one having a sense of personal understanding and self respect. It stretches too to making self disclosure appropriate.One reveals information about himself gradually and this comes at a time when self respect has been developed leading to development in trust. Mu tual sharing must be the guiding factors to this. Lastly one never tolerates abuse or disrespect. You should recognize when the problem is yours or the other person’s. if it doesn’t have to be yours, you simply don’t jump in to provide a solution but instead let the other person be responsible for his own boundaries. At times, a situation of collapsed or no boundaries has been described. This has been manifested through several states as well.When one can’t say no for fear of abandonment or rejection. One discloses too much information about himself or herself. If one takes no other people’s feelings apart from empathy and high tolerance for abuse and being treated with disrespect it dearly demonstrates collapsed boundaries. It further stretches to the feeling of â€Å"I believe I deserve it† when treated badly. This is coupled with doing anything to avoid conflict with other people. Being focused on achieving what you believe other people w ant you to be letting you have no sense of noting fully in others.You always want to act to please other people and in return forget all about molding respected and responsible individual in yourself. Boundaries can be important in our lives. They do give us ownership. A boundary can in simple terms be described as a property line. Knowing where our property starts and ends one is able to understand and have a claim of ownership over the given property. We tend to understand what belongs to us and what doesn’t at the same time. Through having boundaries and having defined the extent of ownership it does give us a sense of responsibility.We are responsible for keeping well what belongs to us. As such, individuals are taught to take good care of what belongs to them so that we do not interfere with other people’s freedom and rights. This helps understanding where one’s freedom or control starts and ends. Understanding the freedom one has from the spouse we are abl e to open up several other opportunities. As clearly understood that your next door neighbor cannot force you paint your house walls green or red we tend to understand that we cannot poke our noses into other people’s affairs and expect to do away with it.The triangle of boundaries revolves around freedom, love and responsibility. We were created free by God and given the responsibility for our freedom as well. Being set free, makes us be responsible for our deeds failure for which leads to prosecution. As stated in the whole bible we are asked to love God and worship him all along. God expects us to live free and take responsibility for our own freedom besides loving him so much. If we accomplished these three events of life, then life becomes a bed of roses and an Eden of experience. Incredibility occurs as these three ingredients of life do happen.When love grows, spouses become more and more free of slavery; being self centered, living patterns that are sinful and limitat ions that are self imposed tend to fade away. This leads to spouses gaining a greater sense of self control and responsibility. As a result of acting more responsibly one becomes more loving. This sends back to the start the cycle all over again. The secret towards happiness in a long lasting relationship is this one. A couple married for more than 10 years can boast of this since they learn to become more of themselves with time and get more loved in return.Love has been known to exist only where there is freedom. Protection is the last aspect of boundaries. Taking an example of a home or a house, one is always struggling to keep his house under lock and key to ensure that there is protection and safety. It was said by Jesus that dogs should not be given what is sacred. Our (pearks) should not be thrown to pigs instead. They might trample them under their feet and immediately they are done they will turn to tear you into pieces (cited Matthew 7:6). These fences are used to keep the bad ones out and only let in the good ones.This means that the permeability of boundaries is an issue. As with individuals, one needs boundaries that can be put up when the evil is present and be laid down when the dangerous states are done with. Living within truth makes us safe. This regards truth as another very important boundary. Boundaries are provided with the truth and principle of guidance from God. When we do the following we define it as truth; do not lie or commit adultery, coveting other peoples property like the story in the bible, readiness to give to others, loving one another, being compassionate and readiness to forgive.Crossing boundaries of relationships centered around God's truth endangers our success and how well we can thrive. Honesty and truthfulness about what happens in our relationships is a good provision of our boundaries. There are certain law that govern the boundary issues as seen in marriages. Sowing and reaping This should be interpreted to mean t hat our actions have consequences or repercussions. When we do positive things about us, we tend to draw people closer to us and as a result they do become more loving and accommodating to us.They feel more attached to us and more than willing to be with us and stay attached to us. We always send them to a state of wanting to be with us at the same time being more positive to us. The moment we become irresponsible and unloving, people tend to keep distance from us. They run away from us and feel like not wanting to be associated with us. We are left alone and the consequences are feeling lonely and withdrawn. This teaches us to be responsible knowing that if we messed around with other peoples emotions they in turn end up leaving us alone and keeping us in a state of wanting to be close again.The law of responsibility This means that the spouses refuses to rescue their partners from mistakes and foibles committed by them. This is the sinful behavior of being immature. The couples ha ve the responsibility of setting limits to the level that their spouses are held up in the unbecoming behavior. This is a clear state of the mind being exercised by the partners tending to build up maturity in their spouses. When such a state of the mind is created, then the entire consequence is having a mature society as a whole. The law of powerThis law comes out to be a unique one. It does so in the sense that it does empower the couples with the ability to change their marriages. One has the capacity to get out whatsoever he or she wants from the marriage and not acting as a result of pressure from other sources. As a result, the act of saying that we let nature take its course is done away with. When we let nature take its course we end up in a situation that does not allow us to set our own targets. Setting targets is the first thing that any human being can think of and be able to achieve.It encourages us to work hard and be alert in all situations. A human being who doesn't work with any target ends up being distorted and the final resettling becomes a thing of the past. It is only when you and your mate understand and go to the extend of respecting each others needs that you can selflessly give to one another. The creating of boundaries in marriages gives you the right tools you actually deserve to come out to the right decision. Boundary issues appear to be dominant in many places. It does not only apply to human setting but has been noted even in national parks.Boundary management has become a major concern issue even in these places. Boundary making traces its origin straight from the animal kingdom. From time immemorial, animals have been known from time immemorial to lay boundaries within themselves. The king of the jungle was the lion and the cascading system was used to place animals in different places in the jungle. This led to the assignment of tasks based on boundaries. Man has had to derive his present governance system on the very basis that the animal kingdom operated. Just like the animals defined their boundaries so has man become of late.This has been seen to range from individual relationships to group relations and even stretches to the international level. Long before the introduction of the state governance system, we used to have traditionally instituted societies that lived and respected the presence and sovereignty of other neighboring states. Failure to do do this would lead to endless wars among the competing societies something that led to restoration of peace in the society. It is clear that boundary issues cut across all spheres of our living and we tend to have them in our day to day living.These are issues that affect our living and we cannot be able to have a peaceful society without boundary issues coming into play. As a matter of fact, we do understand that human coexistence is based on the fact that one has to respect the sovereignty of the other. Be it at individual or collective responsibili ty level, the secret behind colleagues having some mutual understanding is recognition of the rights and freedoms of the other members of the society. If human beings lived by this, the society remains to be a peaceful one.As clearly seen in this paper, if one has to maintain his dignity, define the level to which you do relate with others and keep a clear distinction between your work and the social life. When a clear cut distinction has been put between the two cases, then the society understands the need for boundaries and as a result, we are able to have a peaceful society. Word count 3482 References â€Å"Boundary Issues†: Using Boundary Intelligence ti Get The Intimacy You Want and The Independence You Need In Life, Love and Work. † by Jane Adams (Wiley, October, 2005)Ludwig Edelstein. The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation and Interpretation. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1943. Federation Of State Medical Boards of The US,Inc. , Ad Hoc Committee On Physician Im pairment. Report on Sexual Boundary Issues, April, 1996. Irons, RR. Schneider JP. Addictive Sexual Disorders in Principles and Practices of Addictions In Psychiatry, Miller. NS ed. , pp. 441-457, 19997. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Opinion On Ethics:Sexual Misconduct In The Physician Patient Relationship, Document Number. 1

Information Security Career From www.isc2.org Website Research Papers

Abstract This research is based on the requirements of an individual interested in the Information Security as stipulated by the International Information Systems Security Certification Consortium, (ISC)2. The requirements focus on major domains to be covered by completion of the certification. In this text, certifications discussed include; Certified information Systems Security Professional CISSP, Systems Security Certified Practitioner SSCP, Information Systems Security Architecture Professional ISSAP, Information Systems Security Engineering Professional ISSEP, and GIAC Security Essentials Certification GSEC. In summation, this research is essential for both professionals and non-professionals interested in Information Security. Introduction Information security is the process of protecting the availability, privacy and integrity of information from unauthorized access or modification. A tremendous increase in technological advancement in the corporate world has seen many companies store business and individual information on computer databases. Most of this information stored, is processed and transmitted across networks to other computers. Should this confidential information fell into the wrong hands, it could lead to lost business, identity theft, law suits or even bankruptcy of the business. Thus, protecting confidential information is a business requirement and in many cases also an ethical legal requirement. Over time, information security has evolved significantly and developed even more important in recent years. From a career perspective, there are even more areas where a professional can work in the field. Some of the specialty areas within information security include; Network Security, Application and Database Security, Security Testing, Information Systems Auditing, Digital Forensics Science and Business Continuity Planning, among others. Professionalism An entry into this field of information security can be accomplished through self-study, college or university schooling in the field or through week-long focused training camps. Many colleges, universities and training companies offer many of their programs online The International Information Systems Security Certification Consortium, also known as (ISC)2, is a global, not-for-profit leader in educating and certifying information security professionals. The (ISC)2 is recognized worldwide for their gold standard certifications and high quality education programs. The (ISC)2 provides career services, education products, and certification credentials to information technology security professionals in more than 135 countries. The mission of the (ISC)2 is stated as: we make society safer by improving productivity, efficiency and resilience of information-dependent economies through information security education and certification. (ISC)2 develops and maintains their Common Body of Knowledge, CBK on information security topics. This knowledge defines global industry standards, and serves as a common framework of terms and principles. In this way, the (ISC)2 allows professionals worldwide to discuss, debate, and resolve matters pertaining to the field. Subject matter experts continually review and update the CBK. The (ISC)2 certifications are in high demand to both individuals and employers for the seamless safety and protection of information and infrastructures. The certifications under study in this research and currently offered by (ISC)2 include: Systems Security Certified Practitioner (SSCP ®) Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP ®) Information Systems Security Architecture Professional (CISSP-ISSAP ®) Information Systems Security Engineering Professional (CISSP-ISSEP ®) CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional The CISSP is a credential for professionals who develop policies and procedures in information security. It was the first credential in the field of information security, accredited by the American National Standards Institute, ANSI to International Organization for Standardization, ISO Standard 17024:2003. This certification is not only an objective measure of excellence, but also a globally recognized standard of achievement. The CISSP credential is ideal for mid-level and senior-level managers who are working toward or have already attained positions as CISOs, CSOs or Senior Security Engineers. Its validity is for only three years, after which it must be renewed by either re-taking the exam or by reporting at least 120 Continuing Professional Education, CPE credits since the previous renewal. For a candidate to take CISSP examination, he/ she must meet the following requirements: Have a minimum of five years of direct full-time security professional work experience in two or more of the ten domains of the (ISC)2 CISSP CBK, or four years of direct full-time security professional work experience in two or more of the ten domains of the CISSP CBK with a college degree. On the other hand there is a one-year waiver of the professional experience requirement for holding an additional credential on the (ISC)2 approved list. The ten domains of the (ISC) ² CISSP CBK include: Access Control – policies, standards and procedures that define who users are, what they can do, which resources they can access, and what operations they can perform on a system. Application Development Security – Software based controls, development life cycle and principles Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Planning – Response and recovery plans and restoration activities Cryptography – Basic concepts and algorithms, signature and cryptanalysis. Information Security Governance  and Risk Management – policies, standards, guidelines and procedures. Risk management and practices and planning and organization. Legal, Regulations,  Investigations and Compliance – Major legal systems, common and civil law and regulations regarding law and information security.   Ã‚   Operations Security – Media, backups and change control management.    Physical (Environmental) Security – Layered physical defense and entry points including site location principles Security Architecture and Design – principles and benefits, trusted systems and computing base, and system and enterprise architecture. Telecommunications and Network Security – network security concepts and risks, business goals and network security.    Complete the Candidate Agreement, attesting to the truth of his or her assertions regarding professional experience and legally commit to adhere to the (ISC)2 Code of Ethics. Successfully answer four questions regarding criminal history and related background. SSCP Systems Security Certified Practitioner Systems Security Certified Practitioner (SSCP) is a vendor-neutral Information Security certification governed by the (ISC)2. SSCP is designed for the hands-on practitioner who implements the plans and policies designed by information security managers, CISOs, CSOs or equivalent. The main goal of SSCP is to validate mastery of the technical implementation side of information security systems and the ability to collaborate with those that write policy. It is ideal for those working towards positions such as Network Security Engineers, Security Systems Analysts, or Security Administrators. This is also the perfect course for personnel in many other non-security disciplines that require an understanding of security but do not have information security as a primary part of their job description. This large and growing group includes information systems auditors; application programmers; system, network and database administrators; business unit representatives, and systems analysts. SSCP candidates must meet the following requirements prior to taking the SSCP examination: Subscribe to the (ISC)2 Code of Ethics. Have at least one year of cumulative work experience in one or more of the seven domains in information security. The seven domains of the (ISC) ² SSCP include: Access Controls policies, standards and procedures that define who users are, what they can do, which resources they can access, and what operations they can perform on a system. Cryptography the protection of information using techniques that ensure its integrity, confidentiality, authenticity and non-repudiation, and the recovery of encrypted information in its original form. Malicious Code and Activity – countermeasures and prevention techniques for dealing with viruses, worms, logic bombs, Trojan horses and other related forms of intentionally created deviant code. Monitoring and Analysis – determining system implementation and access in accordance with defined IT criteria. Collecting information for identification of and response to security breaches or events. Networks and Communications the network structure, transmission methods and techniques, transport formats and security measures used to operate both private and public communication networks. Risk, Response and Recovery the review, analysis and implementation processes essential to the identification, measurement and control of loss associated with uncertain events. Security Operations and Administration identification of information assets and documentation of policies, standards, procedures and guidelines that ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability. Information Systems Security Architecture Professional (ISSAP) Information Systems Security Architecture Professional is an independent information security certification concentration of the CISSP governed by the (ISC)2. This concentration requires a candidate to demonstrate two years of professional experience in the area of architecture and is an appropriate credential for Chief Security Architects and Analysts who may typically work as independent consultants or in similar capacities. The architect plays a key role within the information security department with responsibilities that functionally fit between the C-suite and upper managerial level and the implementation of the security program. He/she would generally develop, design, or analyze the overall security plan. Although this role may typically be tied closely to technology this is not necessarily the case, and is fundamentally the consultative and analytical process of information security. According to the (ISC)2 Information Systems Security Architecture Professional (ISSAP) Candidate Information Bulletin, candidates for the ISSAP must meet the following requirements: Be a CISSP in good standing Demonstrate two years of professional experience in systems security architecture Maintain the ISSAP credential in addition to the underlying CISSP Adhering to the (ISC)2 Code of Ethics. The six major domains of the CBK covered by CISSP-ISSAP certification are: Access Control Systems and Methodology – details the critical requirements to establish adequate and effective access control restrictions for an organization. Access control protects systems, data, physical infrastructure and personnel in order to maintain their integrity, availability and confidentiality. Communications Network Security addresses the security concerns related to the critical role of telecommunications and networks in today’s distributed computing environments. The security professional understands the risks to communications networks across data, voice and multimedia. Cryptography requires the security professional to understand cryptographic methodologies and the use of cryptography to protect an organization’s data storage and communications from compromise and misuse. Security Architecture Analysis requires the evaluation and choice of different architectures, and understanding the risks associates with each type of design. Technology Related Business Continuity Planning (BCP) Disaster Recovery Planning (DRP) involves the identification of adverse events that could threaten the ability of the organization to continue normal operations. Once identified, the security professional will implement countermeasures to reduce the risk of such incidents from re-occurring. Physical Security Considerations recognizes the importance of physical security and personnel controls in a complete information systems security model. Information Systems Security Engineering Professional (ISSEP) This concentration was developed in conjunction with the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) providing an invaluable tool for any systems security engineering professional. CISSP-ISSEP is the guide for incorporating security into projects, applications, business processes, and all information systems. Security professionals are hungry for workable methodologies and best practices that can be used to integrate security into all facets of business operations. The SSE model taught in the IATF portion of the course is a guiding light in the field of information security and the incorporation of security into all information systems. Candidates for the ISSEP must meet the following requirements: Adhering to the (ISC)2 Code of Ethics Be a CISSP in good standing Pass the ISSEP exam The four major domains of the CBK covered by CISSP-ISSEP certification are: Systems Security Engineering employs Information Assurance Technical Framework (IATF) processes to discover users’ information protection needs and design systems that will effectively and efficiently address those needs. It also covers concepts of defense in depth, risk assessment, and the systems lifecycle. Certification and Accreditation (CA) identifies, understands, and implements the Certification and Accreditation (CA) processes. Technical Management describes system development models and relates security tasks to these models. U.S. Government Information Assurance (IA) Governance (e.g., laws, regulations, policies, guidelines, standards) identifies, understands and applies the practices as defined by the United States Government Information Assurance regulations. GIAC Security Essentials Certification (GSEC) GSEC (GIAC Security Essentials Certification) from the SANS Institute targets security Professionals that want to demonstrate they are qualified for IT systems hands-on roles with respect to security tasks. Candidates are required to demonstrate an understanding of information security beyond simple terminology and concepts. GSEC has nearly one third of its focus on testing skills that people need to secure the most common and most important operating systems, so it test knowledge the professional can put to work immediately in their jobs. Therefore, it is more focused on what security professionals actually have to do, and goes deeper in technical concepts. The primary goal of the program is to address the need to validate the skills of security professionals and developers. GIAC certification provides assurance that a certified individual meets a minimum level of ability and possesses the skills necessary to do the job. The standards for the GIAC certification were developed using the highest benchmarks in the industry. Before a person can attempt the GSE, they must successfully complete three GIAC certifications (GSEC, GCIA and GCIH) with GIAC Gold in at least two. In addition, you must have real world, hands-on experience in these subject areas. The GSE hands-on examination ensures each candidate has a high-degree of competence in each of the objectives listed below. GIAC reserves the right to request that candidates who are unsuccessful in one domain of the GSE lab by a slim margin complete additional work outside of the GSE lab before awarding any credential. GIAC also reserves the right to require any candidate to retake the entire lab. Five domains of the GSE Certification include; IDS and Traffic Analysis Incident Handling ITSEC Security Technologies Soft Skills GIAC certifications cover five IT security job disciplines: Security Administration Security Management Forensics IT Audit Software Security Reference (ISC) ², Inc. Certification Programs. 1996-2010. 6th December 2010. https://www.isc2.org/credentials/default.aspx The SANS Institute. GIAC Global Information Assurance Certification. 2000 -2010.6th December 2010. http://www.giac.org/

A Primer on Arc Elasticity

One of the problems with the standard formulas for elasticity that are in many freshman texts is the elasticity figure you come up with is different depending on what you use as the start point and what you use as the endpoint. An example will help illustrate this. When we looked at Price Elasticity of Demand, we calculated the price elasticity of demand when the price went from $9 to $10 and demand went from 150 to 110 was 2.4005. But what if we calculated what the price elasticity of demand when we started at $10 and went to $9? So wed have: Price(OLD)10Price(NEW)9QDemand(OLD)110QDemand(NEW)150 First wed calculate the percentage change in quantity demanded: [QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / QDemand(OLD) By filling in the values we wrote down, we get: [150 - 110] / 110 (40/110) 0.3636 (Again we leave this in decimal form) Then wed calculate the percentage change in price: [Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / Price(OLD) By filling in the values we wrote down, we get: [9 - 10] / 10 (-1/10) -0.1 We then use these figures to calculate the price-elasticity of demand: PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) We can now fill in the two percentages in this equation using the figures we calculated earlier. PEoD (0.3636)/(-0.1) -3.636 When calculating a price elasticity, we drop the negative sign, so our final value is 3.636. Obviously, 3.6 is a lot different from 2.4, so we see that this way of measuring price elasticity is quite sensitive to which of your two points you choose as your new point, and which you choose as your old point. Arc elasticities are a way of removing this problem. When calculating Arc Elasticities, the basic relationships stay the same. So when were calculating Price Elasticity of Demand we still use the basic formula: PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) However, how we calculate the percentage changes differ. Before when we calculated Price Elasticity of Demand, Price Elasticity of Supply,  Income Elasticity of Demand, or Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand wed calculate the percentage change in Quantity Demand the following way: [QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / QDemand(OLD) To calculate an arc-elasticity, we use the following formula: [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]]*2 This formula takes an average of the old quantity demanded and the new quantity demanded on the denominator. By doing so, we will get the same answer (in absolute terms) by choosing $9 as old and $10 as new, as we would choosing $10 as old and $9 as new. When we use arc elasticities we do not need to worry about which point is the starting point and which point is the ending point. This benefit comes at the cost of a more difficult calculation. If we take the example with: Price(OLD)9Price(NEW)10QDemand(OLD)150QDemand(NEW)110 We will get a percentage change of: [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]]*2 [[110 - 150] / [150 110]]*2 [[-40]/[260]]*2 -0.1538 * 2 -0.3707 So we get a percentage change of -0.3707 (or -37% in percentage terms). If we swap the old and new values for old and new, the denominator will be the same, but we will get 40 in the numerator instead, giving us an answer of the 0.3707. When we calculate the percentage change in price, we will get the same values except one will be positive and the other negative. When we calculate our final answer, we will see that the elasticities will be the same and have the same sign. To conclude this piece, Ill include the formulas so you can calculate the arc versions of price elasticity of demand, price elasticity of supply, income elasticity, and cross-price demand elasticity. We recommend calculating each of the measures using the step-by-step fashion we detail in the previous articles. New Formulas: Arc Price Elasticity of Demand PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Price) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Price Elasticity of Supply PEoS (% Change in Quantity Supplied)/(% Change in Price) (% Change in Quantity Supplied) [[QSupply(NEW) - QSupply(OLD)] / [QSupply(OLD) QSupply(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Income Elasticity of Demand PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded)/(% Change in Income) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Income) [[Income(NEW) - Income(OLD)] / [Income(OLD) Income(NEW)]] *2] New Formulas: Arc Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand of Good X PEoD (% Change in Quantity Demanded of X)/(% Change in Price of Y) (% Change in Quantity Demanded) [[QDemand(NEW) - QDemand(OLD)] / [QDemand(OLD) QDemand(NEW)]] *2] (% Change in Price) [[Price(NEW) - Price(OLD)] / [Price(OLD) Price(NEW)]] *2] Notes and Conclusion So now you can calculate elasticity using a simple formula as well as using the arc formula. In a future article, we will look at using calculus to compute elasticities. If youd like to ask a question about the elasticities, microeconomics, macroeconomics or any other topic or comment on this story, please use the feedback form.